![]() ![]() In particular, for economically important species, such as farm animals, the availability of authentic iPS cells would have important consequences for reproductive biology and approaches for genetic modification. Importantly, iPS cells could be isolated from several species, in which the isolation of authentic ES cells was not successful despite several attempts since many years. A summary of the generation of iPS cells from different species of livestock is enumerated in Table Table1. Subsequently, the core reprogramming factors have been successfully used to derive pluripotent cells in various other species, including rhesus monkey, rat, pig, dog, cattle, horse, sheep, goat and buffalo. Methodological toolbox for generating induced pluripotent stem cells. An increased understanding of the fundamental mechanisms underlying pluripotency and refining the methodology of iPS cell generation will have a profound impact on future development and application in regenerative medicine and reproductive biotechnology of farm animals. We also highlight problems associated with the generation of iPS cells. ![]() In this review, we focus on the mechanisms of cellular reprogramming and current methods used to induce pluripotency. Non-integration methods have been reported to overcome the safety concerns associated with retro and lentiviral-derived iPS cells, such as transient expression of the reprogramming factors using episomal plasmids, and direct delivery of reprogramming mRNAs or proteins. ![]() Multiple viral integrations into the genome may cause insertional mutagenesis and may increase the risk of tumour formation. Most induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells are generated by retroviral or lentiviral transduction of reprogramming factors. The recently established technology to generate an induced pluripotency status by ectopic co-expression of the transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc allows to extending these applications to farm animal species, for which the derivation of genuine embryonic stem cells was not successful so far. Via blastocyst complementation, pluripotent cells are a favoured tool for the generation of genetically modified mice. Pluripotent cells also allow to study developmental pathways, and to employ them or their differentiated cell derivatives in pharmaceutical testing and biotechnological applications. ![]() These features provide the basis for an unlimited cell source for innovative cell therapies. We compare ES and iPS cells to answer the question whether these cells are identical, and we finish with an outlook on clinical research with iPS cells with a focus on cardiovascular medicine.Pluripotent stem cells are unspecialized cells with unlimited self-renewal, and they can be triggered to differentiate into desired specialized cell types. Techniques to derive pluripotent cells from somatic sources are introduced and discussed, as well as some biological factors that influence the generation of iPS cells. In this concise review, we discuss the state of the art in the field of iPS cell induction by cell fusion or defined factors. Scientists are now able to generate iPS cells for disease modelling and use them in basic research of physiological and pathophysiological models. Beside therapeutic issues, iPS cell technology opens the door for broader research on human pluripotent cells because ethical limitations are lifted with iPS cells compared to hES cells. Patient-tailored iPS cells remove the major roadblock of immune rejection for clinical applications associated with the use of human embryonic stem (hES) cells. The generation of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells by controlled delivery of reprogramming factors enables the derivation of pluripotent cells from a variety of somatic cell types. ![]()
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